Shadow Kiss Chapter 1

One HIS FINGERTIPS SLID ALONG my back, applying hardly any pressure, yet sending shock waves over my flesh. Slowly, slowly, his hands moved across my skin, down the sides of my stomach to finally rest in the curves of my hips. Just below my ear, I felt his lips press against my neck, followed by another kiss just below it, then another, then another. †¦ His lips moved from my neck toward my cheek and then finally found my mouth. We kissed, wrapping ourselves closer together. My blood burned within me, and I felt more alive in that moment than I ever had. I loved him, loved Christian so much that – Christian? Oh no. Some coherent part of me immediately realized what was happening – and boy, was it pissed off. The rest of me, however, was still actually living in this encounter, experiencing it as though I was the one being touched and kissed. That part of me couldn't break away. I'd merged too much with Lissa, and for all intents and purposes, this was happening to me. No, I told myself sternly. It's not real – not for you. Get out of there. But how could I listen to logic when every nerve of my body was being set on fire? You aren't her. This isn't your head. Get out. His lips. There was nothing in the world right now except his lips. It's not him. Get out. The kisses were the same, exactly as I remembered with him. †¦ No, it's not Dimitri. Get out! Dimitri's name was like cold water hitting me in the face. I got out. I sat upright in my bed, suddenly feeling smothered. I tried kicking off the covers but mostly ended up entangling my legs even more. My heart beat hard in my chest, and I tried to take deep breaths to steady myself and return to my own reality. Times sure had changed. A long time ago, Lissa's nightmares used to wake me from sleep. Now her sex life did. To say the two were a little different would be an understatement. I'd actually gotten the hang of blocking out her romantic interludes – at least when I was awake. This time, Lissa and Christian had (unintentionally) outsmarted me. In sleep, my defenses were down, allowing strong emotions to pass through the psychic link that connected me to my best friend. This wouldn't have been a problem if the two of them had been in bed like normal people – and by â€Å"being in bed,† I mean â€Å"asleep.† â€Å"God,† I muttered, sitting up and swinging my legs over the side of the bed. My voice was muffled in a yawn. Couldn't Lissa and Christian have seriously kept their hands off each other until waking hours? Worse than being woken up, though, was the way I still felt. Sure, none of that making out had actually happened to me. It hadn't been my skin being touched or my lips being kissed. Yet my body seemed to feel the loss of it nonetheless. It had been a very long time since I'd been in that kind of situation. I ached and felt warm all over. It was idiotic, but suddenly, desperately, I wanted someone to touch me – even just to hold me. But definitely not Christian. The memory of those lips on mine flashed back through my mind, how they'd felt, and how my sleepy self had been so certain it was Dimitri kissing me. I stood up on shaky legs, feeling restless and †¦ well, sad. Sad and empty. Needing to walk off my weird mood, I put on a robe and slippers and left my room for the bathroom down the hall. I splashed cool water on my face and stared in the mirror. The reflection looking back at me had tangled hair and bloodshot eyes. I looked sleep-deprived, but I didn't want to go back to bed. I didn't want to risk falling asleep quite yet. I needed something to wake me up and shake away what I'd seen. I left the bathroom and turned toward the stairwell, my feet light on the steps as I went downstairs. The first floor of my dorm was still and quiet. It was almost noon – the middle of the night for vampires, since they ran on a nocturnal schedule. Lurking near the edge of a doorway, I scanned the lobby. It was empty, save for the yawning Moroi man sitting at the front desk. He leafed halfheartedly through a magazine, held to consciousness only by the finest of threads. He came to the magazine's end and yawned again. Turning in his revolving chair, he tossed the magazine on a table behind him and reached for what must have been something else to read. While his back was turned, I darted past him toward the set of double doors that opened outside. Praying the doors wouldn't squeak, I carefully opened one a crack, just enough to slip through. Once outside, I eased the door shut as gently as possible. No noise. At most, the guy would feel a draft. Feeling like a ninja, I stepped out into the light of day. Cold wind blasted me in the face, but it was exactly what I needed. Leafless tree branches swayed in that wind, clawing at the sides of the stone dorm like fingernails. The sun peeped at me from between lead-colored clouds, further reminding me that I should be in bed and asleep. Squinting at the light, I tugged my robe tighter and walked around the side of the building, toward a spot between it and the gym that wasn't quite so exposed to the elements. The slush on the sidewalk soaked into the cloth of my slippers, but I didn't care. Yeah, it was a typically miserable winter day in Montana, but that was the point. The crisp air did a lot to wake me up and chase off the remnants of the virtual love scene. Plus, it kept me firmly in my own head. Focusing on the cold in my body was better than remembering what it had felt like to have Christian's hands on me. Standing there, staring off at a cluster of trees without really seeing them, I was surprised to feel a spark of anger at Lissa and Christian. It must be nice, I thought bitterly, to do whatever the hell you wanted. Lissa had often commented that she wished she could feel my mind and experiences the way I could feel hers. The truth was, she had no idea how lucky she was. She had no idea what it was like to have someone else's thoughts intruding on yours, someone else's experiences muddling yours. She didn't know what it was like to live with someone else's perfect love life when your own was nonexistent. She didn't understand what it was like to be filled with a love so strong that it made your chest ache – a love you could only feel and not express. Keeping love buried was a lot like keeping anger pent up, I'd learned. It just ate you up inside until you wanted to scream or kick something. No, Lissa didn't understand any of that. She didn't have to. She could carry on with her own romantic affairs, with no regard for what she was doing to me. I noticed then that I was breathing heavily again, this time with rage. The icky feeling I'd felt over Lissa and Christian's late-night hookup was gone. It had been replaced by anger and jealousy, feelings born of what I couldn't have and what came so easily to her. I tried my best to swallow those emotions back; I didn't want to feel that way toward my best friend. â€Å"Are you sleepwalking?† a voice asked behind me. I spun around, startled. Dimitri stood there watching me, looking both amused and curious. It would figure that while I was raging over the problems in my unfair love life, the source of those problems would be the one to find me. I hadn't heard him approach at all. So much for my ninja skills. And honestly, would it have killed me to pick up a brush before I went outside? Hastily, I ran a hand through my long hair, knowing it was a little too late. It probably looked like an animal had died on top of my head. â€Å"I was testing dorm security,† I said. â€Å"It sucks.† A hint of a smile played over his lips. The cold was really starting to seep into me now, and I couldn't help but notice how warm his long leather coat looked. I wouldn't have minded wrapping up in it. As though reading my mind, he said, â€Å"You must be freezing. Do you want my coat?† I shook my head, deciding not to mention that I couldn't feel my feet. â€Å"I'm fine. What are you doing out here? Are you testing security too?† â€Å"I am security. This is my watch.† Shifts of school guardians always patrolled the grounds while everyone else slept. Strigoi, the undead vampires who stalked living Moroi vampires like Lissa, didn't come out in sunlight, but students breaking rules – say, like, sneaking out of their dorms – were a problem night and day. â€Å"Well, good work,† I said. â€Å"I'm glad I was able to help test your awesome skills. I should be going now.† â€Å"Rose – † Dimitri's hand caught my arm, and despite all the wind and chill and slush, a flash of heat shot through me. He released me with a start, as though he too had been burned. â€Å"What are you really doing out here?† He was using the stop fooling around voice, so I gave him as truthful an answer as I could. â€Å"I had a bad dream. I wanted some air.† â€Å"And so you just rushed out. Breaking the rules didn't even cross your mind – and neither did putting on a coat.† â€Å"Yeah,† I said. â€Å"That pretty much sums it up.† â€Å"Rose, Rose.† This time it was his exasperated voice. â€Å"You never change. Always jumping in without thinking.† â€Å"That's not true,† I protested. â€Å"I've changed a lot.† The amusement on his face suddenly faded, his expression growing troubled. He studied me for several moments. Sometimes I felt as though those eyes could see right into my soul. â€Å"You're right. You have changed.† He didn't seem very happy about the admission. He was probably thinking about what had happened almost three weeks ago, when some friends and I had gotten ourselves captured by Strigoi. It was only through sheer luck that we'd managed to escape – and not all of us had gotten out. Mason, a good friend and a guy who'd been crazy about me, had been killed, and part of me would never forgive myself for it, even though I'd killed his murderers. It had given me a darker outlook on life. Well, it had given everyone here at St. Vladimir's Academy a darker outlook, but me especially. Others had begun to notice the difference in me. I didn't like to see Dimitri concerned, though, so I played off his observation with a joke. â€Å"Well, don't worry. My birthday's coming up. As soon as I'm eighteen, I'll be an adult, right? I'm sure I'll wake up that morning and be all mature and stuff.† As I'd hoped, his frown softened into a small smile. â€Å"Yes, I'm sure. What is it, about a month?† â€Å"Thirty-one days,† I announced primly. â€Å"Not that you're counting.† I shrugged, and he laughed. â€Å"I suppose you've made a birthday list too. Ten pages? Single-spaced? Ranked by order of priority?† The smile was still on his face. It was one of the relaxed, genuinely amused ones that were so rare to him. I started to make another joke, but the image of Lissa and Christian flared into my mind again. That sad and empty feeling in my stomach returned. Anything I might have wanted – new clothes, an iPod, whatever – suddenly seemed trivial. What did material things like that mean compared to the one thing I wanted most of all? God, I really had changed. â€Å"No,† I said in a small voice. â€Å"No list.† He tilted his head to better look at me, making some of his shoulder-length hair blow into his face. His hair was brown, like mine, but not nearly as dark. Mine looked black at times. He brushed the unruly strands aside, only to have them immediately blow back into his face. â€Å"I can't believe you don't want anything. It's going to be a boring birthday.† Freedom, I thought. That was the only gift I longed for. Freedom to make my own choices. Freedom to love who I wanted. â€Å"It doesn't matter,† I said instead. â€Å"What do you – † He stopped. He understood. He always did. It was part of why we connected like we did, in spite of the seven-year gap in our ages. We'd fallen for each other last fall when he'd been my combat instructor. As things heated up between us, we'd found we had more things to worry about than just age. We were both going to be protecting Lissa when she graduated, and we couldn't let our feelings for each other distract us when she was our priority. Of course, that was easier said than done because I didn't think our feelings for each other were ever really going to go away. We'd both had moments of weakness, moments that led to stolen kisses or saying things we really shouldn't have. After I'd escaped the Strigoi, Dimitri had told me he loved me and had pretty much admitted he could never be with anyone else because of that. Yet, it had also become clear that we still couldn't be together either, and we had both slipped back into our old roles of keeping away from each other and pretending that our relationship was strictly professional. In a not-so-obvious attempt to change the subject, he said, â€Å"You can deny it all you want, but I know you're freezing. Let's go inside. I'll take you in through the back.† I couldn't help feeling a little surprised. Dimitri was rarely one to avoid uncomfortable subjects. In fact, he was notorious for pushing me into conversations about topics I didn't want to deal with. But talking about our dysfunctional, star-crossed relationship? That was a place he apparently didn't want to go today. Yeah. Things were definitely changing. â€Å"I think you're the one who's cold,† I teased, as we walked around the side of the dorm where novice guardians lived. â€Å"Shouldn't you be all tough and stuff, since you're from Siberia?† â€Å"I don't think Siberia's exactly what you imagine.† â€Å"I imagine it as an arctic wasteland,† I said truthfully. â€Å"Then it's definitely not what you imagine.† â€Å"Do you miss it?† I asked, glancing back to where he walked behind me. It was something I'd never considered before. In my mind, everyone would want to live in the U.S. Or, well, they at least wouldn't want to live in Siberia. â€Å"All the time,† he said, his voice a little wistful. â€Å"Sometimes I wish – â€Å" â€Å"Belikov!† A voice was carried on the wind from behind us. Dimitri muttered something, and then shoved me further around the corner I'd just rounded. â€Å"Stay out of sight.† I ducked down behind a bank of holly trees that flanked the building. They didn't have any berries, but the thick clusters of sharp, pointed leaves scratched where my skin was exposed. Considering the freezing temperature and possible discovery of my late-night walk, a few scratches were the least of my problems right now. â€Å"You're not on watch,† I heard Dimitri say several moments later. â€Å"No, but I needed to talk to you.† I recognized the voice. It belonged to Alberta, captain of the Academy's guardians. â€Å"It'll just take a minute. We need to shuffle some of the watches while you're at the trial.† â€Å"I figured,† he said. There was a funny, almost uncomfortable note in his voice. â€Å"It's going to put a strain on everyone else – bad timing.† â€Å"Yes, well, the queen runs on her own schedule.† Alberta sounded frustrated, and I tried to figure out what was going on. â€Å"Celeste will take your watches, and she and Emil will divide up your training times.† Training times? Dimitri wouldn't be conducting any trainings next week because – Ah. That was it, I realized. The field experience. Tomorrow kicked off six weeks of hands-on practice for us novices. We'd have no classes and would get to protect Moroi night and day while the adults tested us. The â€Å"training times† must be when Dimitri would be out participating in that. But what was this trial she'd mentioned? Did they mean like the final trials we had to undergo at the end of the school year? â€Å"They say they don't mind the extra work,† continued Alberta, â€Å"but I was wondering if you could even things out and take some of their shifts before you leave?† â€Å"Absolutely,† he said, words still short and stiff. â€Å"Thanks. I think that'll help.† She sighed. â€Å"I wish I knew how long this trial was going to be. I don't want to be away that long. You'd think it'd be a done deal with Dashkov, but now I hear the queen's getting cold feet about imprisoning a major royal.† I stiffened. The chill running through me now had nothing to do with the winter day. Dashkov? â€Å"I'm sure they'll do the right thing,† said Dimitri. I realized at that moment why he wasn't saying much. This wasn't something I was supposed to hear. â€Å"I hope so. And I hope it'll only take a few days, like they claim. Look, it's miserable out here. Would you mind coming into the office for a second to look at the schedule?† â€Å"Sure,† he said. â€Å"Let me check on something first.† â€Å"All right. See you soon.† Silence fell, and I had to assume Alberta was walking away. Sure enough, Dimitri rounded the corner and stood in front of the holly. I shot up from my hiding spot. The look on his face told me he already knew what was coming. â€Å"Rose – â€Å" â€Å"Dashkov?† I exclaimed, trying to keep my voice low so Alberta wouldn't hear. â€Å"As in Victor Dashkov?† He didn't bother denying it. â€Å"Yes. Victor Dashkov.† â€Å"And you guys were talking about†¦Do you mean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I was so startled, so dumbstruck, that I could barely get my thoughts together. This was unbelievable. â€Å"I thought he was locked up! Are you saying he hasn't been on trial yet?† Yes. This was definitely unbelievable. Victor Dashkov. The guy who'd stalked Lissa and tortured her mind and body in order to control her powers. Every Moroi could use magic in one of the four elements: earth, air, water, or fire. Lissa, however, worked an almost unheard of fifth element called spirit. She could heal anything – including the dead. It was the reason I was now psychically linked to her – â€Å"shadow-kissed,† some called it. She'd brought me back from the car accident that had killed her parents and brother, binding us together in a way that allowed me to feel her thoughts and experiences. Victor had learned long before any of us that she could heal, and he'd wanted to lock her away and use her as his own personal Fountain of Youth. He also hadn't hesitated to kill anyone who got in his way – or, in the case of Dimitri and me, use more creative ways to stop his opponents. I'd made a lot of enemies in seventeen years, but I was pretty sure there was no one I hated as much as Victor Dashkov – at least among the living. Dimitri had a look on his face I knew well. It was the one he got when he thought I might punch someone. â€Å"He's been locked up – but no, no trial yet. Legal proceedings sometimes take a long time.† â€Å"But there's going to be a trial now? And you're going?† I spoke through clenched teeth, trying to be calm. I suspected I still had the I'm going to punch someone look on my face. â€Å"Next week. They need me and some of the other guardians to testify about what happened to you and Lissa that night.† His expression changed at the mention of what had occurred four months ago, and again, I recognized the look. It was the fierce, protective one he got when those he cared about were in danger. â€Å"Call me crazy for asking this, but, um, are Lissa and I going with you?† I had already guessed the answer, and I didn't like it. â€Å"No.† â€Å"No?† â€Å"No.† I put my hands on my hips. â€Å"Look, doesn't it seem reasonable that if you're going to talk about what happened to us, then you should have us there?† Dimitri, fully in strict-instructor mode now, shook his head. â€Å"The queen and some of the other guardians thought it'd be best if you didn't go. There's enough evidence between the rest of us, and besides, criminal or not, he is – or was – one of the most powerful royals in the world. Those who know about this trial want to keep it quiet.† â€Å"So, what, you thought if you brought us, we'd tell everyone?† I exclaimed. â€Å"Come on, comrade. You really think we'd do that? The only thing we want is to see Victor locked up. Forever. Maybe longer. And if there's a chance he might walk free, you have to let us go.† After Victor had been caught, he'd been taken to prison, and I'd thought that was where the story had ended. I'd figured they'd locked him up to rot. It had never occurred to me – though it should have – that he'd need a trial first. At the time, his crimes had seemed so obvious. But, although the Moroi government was secret and separate from the human one, it operated in a lot of the same ways. Due process and all that. â€Å"It's not my decision to make,† Dimitri said. â€Å"But you have influence. You could speak up for us, especially if†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Some of my anger dimmed just a little, replaced by a sudden and startling fear. I almost couldn't say the next words. â€Å"Especially if there really is a chance he might get off. Is there? Is there really a chance the queen could let him go?† â€Å"I don't know. There's no telling what she or some of the other high-up royals will do sometimes.† He suddenly looked tired. He reached into his pocket and tossed over a set of keys. â€Å"Look, I know you're upset, but we can't talk about it now. I have to go meet Alberta, and you need to get inside. The square key will let you in the far side door. You know the one.† I did. â€Å"Yeah. Thanks.† I was sulking and hated to be that way – especially since he was saving me from getting in trouble – but I couldn't help it. Victor Dashkov was a criminal – a villain, even. He was power-hungry and greedy and didn't care who he stepped on to get his way. If he were loose again†¦well, there was no telling what might happen to Lissa or any other Moroi. It enraged me to think that I could do something to help put him away but that no one would let me do it. I'd taken a few steps forward when Dimitri called out from behind me. â€Å"Rose?† I glanced back. â€Å"I'm sorry,† he said. He paused, and his expression of regret turned wary. â€Å"And you'd better bring the keys back tomorrow.† I turned away and kept going. It was probably unfair, but some childish part of me believed Dimitri could do anything. If he'd really wanted to get Lissa and me to the trial, I was certain he could have. When I was almost to the side door, I caught movement in my peripheral vision. My mood plummeted. Great. Dimitri had given me keys to sneak back in, and now someone else had busted me. That was typical of my luck. Half-expecting a teacher to demand to know what I was doing, I turned and prepared an excuse. But it wasn't a teacher. â€Å"No,† I said softly. This had to be a trick. â€Å"No.† For half an instant, I wondered if I'd ever really woken up. Maybe I was actually still in bed, asleep and dreaming. Because surely, surely that was the only explanation for what I was now seeing in front of me on the Academy's lawn, lurking in the shadow of an ancient, gnarled oak. It was Mason.

Philosophy of Education Essay

The word â€Å"teacher† does the profession no service. A teacher is really a combination of the most important professions in the world. Besides the parents, an educator is the biggest influence in a child’s life. The age span in which children are in school is the most impressionable years of their lives. A student’s educational experience can mold the events of his or her future. That is why I want to become a teacher. I want to be a mold for younger generations, and I hope for students to remember a knowledgeable and ethical teacher. Beliefs I feel the student should come to school willing to learn and the teacher should come ready to teach! The student’s role is just as important as the teachers; the student’s expectations of the teacher should be for her to teach and help them learn at all times. Teachers also play an important role in the classroom when it comes to the environment. If the teacher prepares a warm, happy environment, students are more likely to be happy. An environment set by the teacher can be either good or bad. If students feel the teacher is angry, students may react badly to that and therefore learning can be harder. I think teachers are responsible for the social behavior in their classrooms. This behavior is primarily a reflection of the teacher’s actions and the environment he/she sets. Metaphysics We are all here for a purpose and I believe that, that is to live for God and follow his way of life. It is hard to know what you are really on earth for until you find it through him! Some teachers will find it hard to keep the focus on the classroom do to all the other outside distractions but, I strongly believe that is you were meant to be a teacher then you will find a way to look past the bad and find the good. Why am I here? I think I am here to help children follow their dreams and make it through school easier than I did. When I become a teacher I want to be the best ever! I want to see that smile on the kids’ faces after I teach them something amazing. Progressivism I want to teach from some aspects of the progressivism style which focuses on respect for individuality, high regard for science, and learning from experience. I want to teach the children in my classroom to have respect for each other. This is a quality that will help them to be successful in society because if they respect others, then others will have respect for them. Having respect for others also shows that they have respect for themselves. I also want children to learn by hands-on activities. I will direct them from step to step and demonstrate how to do each step in the activities they perform. These activities make learning more interesting for the children because the children are able to get involved instead of just always watching the teacher do everything. Speaking of the children getting involved, they can really get involved when learning in a different atmosphere when on field trips. I feel taking children on field trips is an effective learning experience for them because it allows children to get out of the classroom setting and learn from a different perspective. In addition I want to focus on sciences because they are an important area in the knowledge of children. I think this growing area of our society should be focused on thoroughly because science advances and improves every day and I feel children should be aware of their changing world. Constructivism I feel like this is the main reason why I should teach and why I want to teach, I have learned so much though school and it has molded me to become who I am today. I learn a lot through experience and what I know will make me a better teacher it will help me relate to the ones that hate school or the ones that think they can’t do it. It’s all a process and the way you take the steps is how I think you will show others so you have to help them with their process and make sure that it doesn’t go bad or in the wrong direction. I plan to continue my education so that I may make teaching my profession. After graduation, I hope to find a position in an elementary school teaching in one of the first through sixth grade classes. I feel that elementary education is extremely important because it is here that children establish their foundation for the rest of the educational career. My goal and desires are to have the opportunity to touch a child’s life.

The galatians of the new testament

While text editions stress the descent of Europe from classical civilization, the face of Europe throughout most of the historical period was dominated by a individual cultural group, a powerful, culturally diverse group of peoples, the Celts. By the start of the Middle Ages, the Celts had been struck on two foreparts by two really powerful civilizations, Rome in the South, and the Germans, who were derived from Gaelic civilization, from the North. Through the period of classical Greece ( matching to the La T & A ; ecirc ; ne civilization in cardinal Europe ) to first centuries AD, most of Europe was under the shadow of this civilization which, in its diverse signifiers, still represented a reasonably incorporate civilization. This massive civilization spread from Ireland to Asia Minor ( the Galatians of the New Testament ) . The Celts even sacked Rome in 390 BC and successfully invaded and sacked several Grecian metropoliss in 280 BC. Though the Celts were preliterate during most of the classical period, the Greeks and Romans discourse them rather a spot, normally disfavorably. From this great civilization would originate the Germans ( we think ) and many of the cultural signifiers, thoughts, and values of mediaeval Europe. For non merely did mediaeval Europe expression back to the Celtic universe as a aureate age of Europe, they besides lived with societal constructions and universe positions that finally owe their beginning to the Celts every bit good as to the Romans and Greeks. The period of Gaelic laterality in Europe began to unknot in the first centuries AD, with the enlargement of Rome, the migrations of the Germans, and subsequently the inflow of an Asiatic immigrant population, the Huns. By the clip Rome fell to Gothic encroachers, the Celts had been pushed west and north, to England, Wales and Ireland and subsequently to Scotland and the northern seashore of France. The Celts are traditionally ignored in universe history text editions and class, but the Celtic manner of life, Celtic establishments, and the Celtic universe position were superimposed onto Germanic and classical civilization. The ulterior massive European civilization is greatly influenced by these early peoples. Most of what we know about Celtic life comes from Ireland-the largest and most extended of the Celtic populations, the Gauls in cardinal and western Europe, we merely know about through Roman sources-and these beginnings are unquestionably unfriendly to the Gauls. We know that the early Gaelic societies were organized around warfare-this construction would normally qualify civilizations in the procedure of migration: the Celts, the Huns, and subsequently the Germans. Although classical Greek and Roman authors considered the Celts to be violently insane, warfare was non an organized procedure of territorial conquering. Among the Celts, warfare seems to hold chiefly been a athletics, concentrating on foraies and runing. In Ireland, the establishment of the fianna involved immature, blue warriors who left the tribal country for a clip to carry on foraies and to run. When the Celts came into contact with the Romans, they changed their mode of warfare to a more organized defence agains a larger ground forces. It was these groups that the classical authors encountered and considered insane. The Gaelic method of warfare was to stand in forepart of the opposing ground forces and shriek and crush their lances and blades against their shields. They woul d so run headfirst into the opposing ground forces and screamed the full way-this frequently had the consequence of frightening the opposing soldiers who so broke into a tally ; contending a fleeing ground forces is comparatively easy work. If the opposing ground forces did non interrupt ranks, the Celts would halt short of the ground forces, return to their original place, and get down the procedure over agina. Gaelic society was hierarchal and class-based. Tribes were led by male monarchs but political organisations were unusually fictile. Harmonizing to both Roman and Irish beginnings, Celtic society was divided into three groups: a warrior nobility, an rational category that included Druids, poets, and legal experts, and everyone else.SocietySociety was tribal and kinship-based ; one ‘s cultural individuality was mostly derived from the larger tribal group, called the tuath ( â€Å" too-awth † ) in Irish ( intending â€Å" people † ) but finally based on the smallest kinship organisational unit, the kin, called the cenedl ( ke-na-dl ) , or â€Å" kindred, † in Irish. The kin provided individuality and protection-disputes between persons were ever differences between kins. Since it was the responsibility of the kin to protect persons, offenses against an person would be prosecuted against an full kin. One of the outstanding establishments among the Celts was the blood-feud in which slaying or abuses against an person would necessitate the full kin to violently exact requital. The blood-feud was in portion avoided by the establishment of professional go-betweens. At least an Ireland, a professional category of legal experts, called brithem, would intercede differences and exact reparations on the offending kin. Even though Gaelic society centered around a warrior nobility, the place of adult females was reasonably high in Gaelic society. In the earliest periods, adult females participated both in warfare and in kingship. While the ulterior Celts would follow a rigorous patriarchal theoretical account, they still have a memory of adult females leaders and warriors. Gaelic society was based about wholly on pastoralism and the elevation of cowss or sheep ; there was some agribusiness in the Celtic universe, but non much. The importance of cowss and the pastoral life created a alone establishment in Celtic, peculiarly Irish, life: the cattle-raid. The larceny of another group ‘s cows was frequently the turn outing point of a group of immature warriors ; the greatest lasting Irish myth, the T & A ; aacute ; in B & A ; oacute ; Cualingne, or â€Å" The Cattle Raid of Cooley, † centers about one such mythically-enhanced cattle-raid. There was no urbanisation of any sort among the Celts until the coming of Roman regulation ; in Ireland, urbanisation did non happen until the Danish and Norse invasions. Society was non based on trade or commercialism ; what trade took topographic point was mostly in the signifier of swap. Gaelic economic system was likely based on the economic rule of most tribal economic systems: reciprocality. In a mutual economic system, goods and other services are non exchanged for other goods, but they are given by persons to persons based on common affinity relationships and duties. ( A household economic system is typical of a mutual economy-parents and kids give each other stuff goods and services non in trade but because they are portion of a household ) . From the 19th century onwards, Celtic faith has enjoyed a captivation among modern Europeans and European-derived civilizations. In peculiar, the last few decennaries have seen a phenomenal growing non merely involvement in Celtic faith, but in spiritual patterns in portion derived from Gaelic beginnings. For all this involvement, nevertheless, we know following to nil about Celtic faith and patterns. The lone beginnings for Celtic spiritual patterns were written by Romans and Greeks, who considered the Celts little more than animate beings, and by subsequently Gaelic authors in Ireland and Wales who were composing from a Christian position. Simply put, although the Celts had a rich and permeant spiritual civilization, it has been for good lost to human memory. We can do some general remarks about Celtic faith based on the often-hostile histories of classical authors. The Celts were polytheistic ; these Gods were finally derived from more crude, Indo-germanic beginnings that gave rise to the polytheistic faiths of Greece, Persia, and India. The Romans in seeking to explicate these Gods, nevertheless, linked them with Roman Gods as did the Romanized Gauls-so we truly have no thought as to the Celtic character of these Gods and their maps. We do cognize that Gaelic Gods tended to come in 3s ; the Celtic logic of deity about ever centered on threes. This triadic logic no uncertainty had enormous significance in the interlingual rendition of Christianity into northern European cultural theoretical accounts.ReligionIt is about certain that the material universe of the Celts was suffused with deity that was both advantageous and harmful. Certain countries were considered more charged with deity than others, particularly pools, lakes and little Gr ovess, which were the sites of the cental ritual activities of Celtic life. The Celts were non-urbanized and harmonizing to Roman beginnings, Celtic ritual involved no temples or constructing structures-Celtic ritual life, so, was centered chiefly on the natural environment. Gaelic ritual life centered on a particular category, called the druides or â€Å" Druids † by the Romans, presumptively from a Gaulish word. Although much has been written about Druids and Celtic ritual pattern, we know following to nil about either. Here ‘s what we can garner. As a particular group, the Druids performed many of the maps that we would see â€Å" priestly † maps, including ritual and forfeit, but they besides included maps that we would put under â€Å" instruction † and â€Å" jurisprudence. † These rites and patterns were likely kept secret-a tradition common among early Indo-germanic peoples-which aid to explicate why the classical universe knows nil about them. The lone thing that the classical beginnings attest is that the Druids performed â€Å" barbarian † or â€Å" horrid † rites at lakes and Grovess ; there was a just sum of consensus among the Greeks and Romans that these rites involved human forfeit. This may or may non be true ; there is some grounds of human forfeit among the Celts, but it does non look to hold been a prevailing pattern. Harmonizing to Julius Caesar, who gives the longest history of Druids, the centre of Gaelic belief was the passing of psyches from one organic structure to another. From an archeological position, it is clear that the Celts believed in an after-life, for material goods are buried with the dead. The earliest Kelts who were major participants in the classical universe were the Gauls, who controlled an country widening from France to Switzerland. It was the Gauls who sacked Rome and subsequently invaded Greece ; it was besides the Gauls that migrated to Asia Minor to establish their ain, independent civilization at that place, that of the Galatians. Through invasion and migration, they spread into Spain and subsequently crossed the Alps into Italy and for good settled the country South of the Alps which the Romans so named, Cisalpine Gaul. The Gauls were a tribal and agricultural society. They were ruled by male monarchs, but single male monarchs reigned merely over little countries. Occasionally a individual powerful male monarch could derive the commitment of several male monarchs as a sort of â€Å" over-king, † but on the whole the Gauls throughout Europe were mostly an cultural continuity instead than a individual state. Cultural individuality among the early Gauls was really unstable. Cultural individuality was foremost and first based on little affinity groups, or clans-this cardinal cultural individuality frequently got collapsed into a larger individuality, that of folks. The chief political constructions, that of kingship, organized themselves around this tribal cultural individuality. For the most portion, the Gauls did non look to hold a larger cultural individuality that united the Gaulish universe into a individual cultural group-the â€Å" Gauls † as an cultural group was mostly invented by the Romans and the Greeks and applied to all the diverse folks spread across the face of northern Europe. The Gauls did hold a sense of territorial ethnicity ; the Romans and Greeks tell us that there were 16 separate territorial states of Gauls. These territorial groups were divided into a series of pagi, which were military units composed of work forces who had voluntarily united as fellow soldi ers.The GaulsThe Gauls, nevertheless, were non the original Europeans. Get downing in an country about Switzerland, the Celts spread westward and eastward displacing native Europeans in the procedure. These migrations begin around 500 BC. The Gaulish invasion of Italy in 400 was portion of this larger out-migration. The Romans, nevertheless, pushed them back by the 3rd century BC ; native Europeans in the North, nevertheless, were non so lucky. Two Gaelic folks, the Cimbri and the Teutones ( â€Å" Teuton, † an cultural for Germans, is derived from the Celtic root for â€Å" people † ) , emigrated E and settled in district in Germany. The centre of Gaelic enlargement, nevertheless, was Gaul, which lay North of the Alps in the part now within the boundary lines of France and Belgium and portion of Spain. The earliest history of the Gauls comes from Julius Caesar. In his history of his military expedition foremost into Gaul and so as far north as Britain, Caesar dexcribed the tribal and regional divisions among the Gauls, of which some seem to hold been original European populations and non Celtic at all. The Gaulish folks or districts often built munitions that served as the military and political centre of the part. These bastioned centres took their names from the larger tribe-for case, Paris took its name from the folk of Parisi and Chartres was originally named after the folk, the Carnuti, which had built it.India GlossaryGaulish society, like all of Celtic society, was stiffly divided into a category system. Similar category systems predominated among the Indians every bit good with mostly the same classs. Harmonizing to Julius Caesar, the three categories of Gaulish society were the druides, equites, and plebs, all Roman words. The Druids were the educated among the Gauls and occupied the highest societal place, merely as the Brahmin category occupied the highest societal place among the Indians. The Druids were responsible for cultural and spiritual cognition every bit good as the public presentation of rites, merely as the Brahmins in India. However vague these spiritual maps might be, the Druids were regarded as powerful over both society and the universe around them. The most powerful tool the Druids had was the power of excommunication-when a Druid excommunicated a member of a folk, it was tantamount to kicking that individual out of the society.Brahmin CaturvarnasThe British did non look in history until Julius Caesar crosses the English Channel from northern Gaul and began his failed conquering of Britain. The Romans returned in 43 AD and began a systematic conquering of the island until they reached the Pictish folks in the Scots Highlandss. Rome would abandon northern England, nevertheless, in 117 Ad The Romans found a disunified group of tribal lands organized around the same logic of warfare as the Gauls. Most of the folks were new arrivals-the majority of southern Britain had been conquered by the Belgae from northern Gaul. In the procedure of emigrating to the island, the Celts pushed the native populations north-these refugee tribal groups would go the cultural ascendants of the Picts, a cryptic civilization that dominated Scotland until the Irish invasions. Many of the folks, peculiarly those in Wales, nevertheless, were edgy. The Romans were beset by rebellions by some Celtic folks and depredations by the northen Picts-throughout the 4th century, as the Roman imperium was strained in every one-fourth, the Romans easy lost control of Britain. The official interruption came in 446 when the Romans in response to a British supplication for aid against the Picts and the Scots, declared Britain independent.BratainAs in Gaul, the Romans brought Roman urban and military civilization ; nevertheless, other than southern England, Roman establishments and civilization were non tremendously influential on the British Celts. The Celts in the North and in Wales ferociously resisted Roman civilization, and the Romans ne'er even put pes in Ireland. On the whole, the Romans more greatly respected and tolerated Gaelic establishments and faiths in Britain, so there was well less assimilation than in Gaul. Because of this, when the Romans left Britain, there was a Renaissance of Gaelic civilization. The British, nevertheless, had learned a really of import construct from the Romans: political integrity. The most celebrated of the Celtic princes was Vortigern, who ruled over eastern Britain. In order to contend against the Pictish invasions, he sent across the channel to acquire aid from the Saxons, a Germanic folk that had begun emigrating into western Europe in the 5th century. The Saxon soldier of fortunes, nevertheless, grew in figure as more and more Saxons came to Britain. Whether or non the narrative of Vortigern is true, Britain fell prey to the same Germanic out-migrations and invasions that spread across Gaul, Spain, and Italy. The Saxon out-migration began in eastern England until they spread wholly across lowland England. The cragged countries to the West ( Wales ) and the North ( Scotland ) , nevertheless, remained Celtic, as did Ireland. By the terminal of the 5th century AD, merely Wales, Scotland, and Ireland remained of the great Celtic tribal lands that had dominated the face of Europe. It was in Ireland that Gaelic civilization and establishments lasted the longest-although Christianity was introduced at an early day of the month, Ireland did non endure any major invasions or cultural alterations until the invasions of the Norwegians and the Danish in the 8th century. The Irish besides represent the last great migration of Celtic peoples. In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Irish crossed over into Scotland and consistently invaded that district until they politically dominated the Picts who lived at that place. The subsiding of Scotland in the 5th century was the really last moving ridge of Celtic migration. For Gaelic civilization, Ireland is much like Iceland was to the Norse. It was sufficiently removed from mainstream Europe to protect it from invasions and to insulate it from many of the cultural alterations which wracked the face of early Europe. It allowed a remarkable prolongation of heathen Gaelic civilization to blend with Christian and the emerging European civilization. This alone synthesis would supply the individual most productive line of cultural transmittal between Gaelic civilization and the European civilization which grew out of classical and German beginnings. Written history in Ireland began in the 5th century when Patrick came to Ireland and introduced literacy. Patrick came to the Celtic tribal land of Tara, which was ruled by Leary, the boy of Niall No & amp ; iacute ; gallich. The boies of Niall ruled over two lands in northern Ireland ; these swayers formed a dynasty that would be called the U & A ; iacute ; N & A ; eacute ; ailment ; the South of Ireland was mostly under the control of Munster. Patrick himself confined all of his activities to northern Ireland and the U & A ; iacute ; N & A ; eacute ; sick, peculiarly around the country of Armagh. Because he introduced the Irish to Christianity, European civilization, and authorship, he became the frequenter saint of Ireland. In the 700 ‘s, Ireland became capable to Norse foraies and out-migrations, merely as most of the remainder of Europe. The first to get were the Norwegians who attacked assorted islands and some of the promontories ; in the 800 ‘s, nevertheless, the Norwegians began to assail the western seashore of Ireland. In the mid-800 ‘s and all through the 900 ‘s, the Norse actively began to construct bastioned towns along the eastern seashore of Ireland. In 841, they built the bastioned town of Dublin ( which the Irish called Ath Cliath, or, â€Å" the hurdle Ford † ) , and would subsequently set up munitions at Cork, Waterford, and Wicklow, some of the cardinal towns of ulterior Irish history. Of these towns, nevertheless, Dublin was the centre of all the Norse activity and served as their cardinal base for foraies all around Ireland and the Irish Sea. The Irish at this clip did non concentrate their population along the seashore but lived inland-the Irish besides did non populate in big and bastioned towns. The debut of both munitions and something resembling urban life was originally introduced by the Norse. Finally, nevertheless, the Norse would come in struggle with the Danish and the country around Dublin became portion of the Danish land that had been established in northern England. The Irish, nevertheless, lived in single tribal groups that were non united-it was n't until 1014 that Munster Irish under the leading of Brian B & A ; oacute ; ruma defeated the Danish at Clontarf and eventually expelled the Norse for good. The Norwegians and the Danish, nevertheless, had mostly stripped Irish civilization of its greatest cultural artefacts. The lone histories that were written of the Norse in Ireland were written by the Irish-these historiographers were far from sympathetic to the encroachers! Ireland, nevertheless, gained a cardinal displacement in its cultural and economic patterns. The Irish inherited from the Danes and Norwegians fortified coastal towns and a new economic system based on trade and commercialism with other Europeans. They besides gave to the Irish more sophisticated accomplishments in ship-building and travel.Irish republicThe most of import bequest that the Irish bequeathed to Europe was Irish Christianity. When Patrick came to Ireland in the 5th century, Christianity had spread across the face of Gaelic civilization but had n't truly penetrated the assorted Gaelic civilizations. It was dispersed really thin and practiced by a perishingly little minority in Gaul and Britain. It was besides presuming a new, distinguishable character among the Celts, who combined Christianity non merely with native Celtic establishments and faiths, but with a overplus of eastern enigma faiths. ( Much of what we call modern â€Å" pagan religion † which points to Gaelic beginnings really originates in eastern, mystery faiths that had been imported into Gaelic civilization. ) It was this Celticized version of Christianity that Patrick brought with him to Ireland. The Saxon invasions, nevertheless, wiped out Christianity in England, but non in Wales or Ireland or Scotland, where the faith had been introduced by Columba, an Irish saint. It was n't until the late 6th century that Christianity was reintroduced into Britain ; this trade name of Christianity, more aligned with the patterns of the Roman church, came into struggle with Celtic Christianity and its alone patterns. By the 10th century, the alone Celtic Christianity of Britain had mostly been subordinated to Saxon Christianity. It was in Ireland that Celtic Christianity thrived during the Germanic invasions and so the ulterior subordination of Celtic Christian patterns to Saxon patterns. The Christianity that Patrick brought to Ireland was Episcopal or diocesan Christianity-the standard signifier of Christianity in Roman occupied districts. Episcopal Christianity is oriented around the organisation of Christians as laic people under the religious and partiall secular control of a bishop ( â€Å" episcopus † in Latin ) . Episcopal Christianity, nevertheless, was entirely ill-sorted to Ireland, for it relies on a certain degree of urbanisation. For the mostly rural, disorganized, and tribal nature of early Irish society, the Episcopal construction had nil to work with. So Irish Christianity shortly developed into cloistered Christianity, which is oriented around the centralisation of a little Christian community under the leading of an archimandrite. This would go the uniquely Irish signifier of Christianity that in spirit and in pattern was much different from the preponderantly Episcopal character of Roman Christianity. The cloistered centres became the countries where Irish Christian civilization thrived-they besides introduced some political stableness and agribusiness into Irish society. While they were nominally under the authorization of Rome, because they were so removed they operated with comparative independency. This would finally convey them in terrible struggle with the Roman church. Before that, nevertheless, Irish missionaries would distribute Gaelic civilization and Christianity all over the face of Europe. Even though the Irish Christians finally submitted to Roman force per unit areas, Irish Christianity had diffused across the face of Europe. This is because the most advanced and distinguishable characteristic of Irish Christianity was rolling, called perigrinatio in Latin. While many Christians became monastics in monasteries, some became hermits, that is, lone monastics. The Irish hermits, nevertheless, saw their mission non as life in isolation, but as rolling around by themselves. These were non specifically missional rovings, but they had that consequence. In the 6th century, one of Ireland ‘s greatest saints, Columicille ( or â€Å" Columba † in Latin ) , successfully introduced Christianity to Scotland. As the in-between ages progressed, nevertheless, the unambiguously Gaelic character of the Irish church, with its profoundly superb merger of Celtic art with Christian art, its merger of Celtic societal organisation and Torahs with cloistered life, and its alone perigrinative character disappeared into the homogenising tendency of the higher center

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Failed IT Project - Research Paper Example IT project teams emphasize on developing software using unsophisticated codes that would facilitate its functionality. Simplicity facilitates the ease of implementation of the project. In addition, monitoring the functionality of the project is far much easier (Smite, Agerfalk & Moe, 1998). Thus, a project that emphasizes on the complexity from the outset will ultimately faces many difficulties in its design and implementation. It was evident that the complexity of the baggage handling system would lead to enormous problems in implementation and design. The system was too complex that the programmers had to develop it in two years. In fact, it was the most complex baggage handling system ever developed. This was because the system would serve a mammoth airport that was twice the size of Manhattan that had more than 20 major airlines. In designing complex systems, it is vital that the complexity of the systems is manageable during the not only during its development but also in its ma intenance. However, the BAE engineers designed a system that had high coupling and had widespread and inconsistent points of failure (Kerzner, 2004). This led to many problems during the testing of the system. In designing complex IT projects, the engineers must ensure that there is modularity in the operations. Modularity makes complexity of the projects manageable. In addition, it facilitates the undertaking of parallel work and accommodates future uncertainties. In projects with modular architecture, substitution of new designs with older ones is relatively cheap. (Liso, 2009). However, in undertaking the automation of the DIA ABS there was not modularity in the activities of the project. Lack of modularity posed serious problems especially after DIA and BAE changed the design of the system to accommodate the requests made by the airline companies. Lack of modularity led to faults that were evident during the testing of the system in the media's presence. Telecars crushed into each other and flung the baggage spewing out the contents of the baggage (Kock, 2006). In

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The Atomic Attack on Japan - Essay Example After Germany's surrender in May 1945, the U.S. and its allies were able to concentrate their efforts on forcing Japan to surrender. With the fall of the Marianas Islands in July 1944, it had become apparent to military leaders on all sides that the fall of Japan was a foregone conclusion (Long). The increased capability of B29 bombers to strike Japan opened Japan's cities and industry to severe attacks. Coupled with a Naval blockade that crippled Japan's ability to gain the resources to wage war, it was only a question of when the surrender would occur. By June 1945, General Curtis LeMay estimated that U.S. airstrikes would have no Japanese targets left by October 1945 (Long). As early as June 1945, the U.S. had intercepted cables from the Japanese to the Russians seeking aid in an offer to surrender (Lewis). With Japan weakening, the Potsdam Declaration of July 1945 called for Japan's unconditional surrender. The harsh rhetoric of the declaration, aimed at the Japanese, indicated that Emperor Hirohito would be deposed and treated as a war criminal. Due to the Japanese religious belief that the emperor was a God, the Proclamation was unacceptable even to the Japanese peace movement. While Japan attempted to negotiate surrender through Russia, the U.S. held fast demanding the complete dismantling of the Japanese authority. The fate of the emperor, and the unwillingness of the U.S. to have Russia broker the deal, were the main points impeding a calculated surrender. Leading scientists as well as military leaders of this period overwhelmingly opposed using the new dreadful weapon. Most found its use against a civilian population repugnant. Many of them suggested a demonstration to the Japanese of its awesome capabilities in an effort to persuade them into surrender. Most agreed that a demonstration would be less than effective and a waste of a bomb. Truman writes in his private diary of July 25, 1945, that he has ordered the bomb dropped on a purely military target and spare civilians, women, and children (Truman Diary). It was clear by his diary entry that he understood the ramifications of the bomb's destructive capability. Truman had quipped that the Japanese would fight to their last dying man and an invasion would cost a million American lives. These were anecdotal estimates and had no military basis. In fact, in the days before the bomb was dropped, Japan was trying to secure an acceptable surrender that would maintain the Emperor's fate. Yet, in the face of scientific opposition and military skepticism, Truman stuck to the order to drop the bombs and struck Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. A second strike hit Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. When the bomb was dropped, the American public shared Truman's enthusiasm laced with a hint of the gloom that rose over the horizon. The perception is still prevalent today that the bomb prevented an invasion and saved American lives (Hogan, 146).Estimates are that 170,000 Japanese were killed instantly from the bomb and the ensuing radiation (Anhalt). Most were civilians. Still, the Japanese Cabinet refused to surrender due to their belief in the emperor as a God. As

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Argument Analysis - Essay Example The analysis of the advertisement shows that the messages in the video are crucially important to be understood by drivers and people who are going to drive and these points are presented effectively in the advertisement. The video describes a situation when two drivers are about to make a crash situation on a road, but suddenly time stops and the drivers go out of their cars. The driver who made the mistake asks the one who drives too fast to slow down, but he can’t because he drives too fast and there is so little time and distance between their cars that there’s nothing anybody can do to prevent the crash. The one who made the mistake shows that there is his little son on the back seat, but the fast driver realizes that the alarm conditions were his fault because if he hadn’t driven too fast they could have avoided the crash and there would be enough time for the father and son to skip on the road before him. So finally the drivers get back to their cars and the piece of the crash is shown for a moment. The advertisement finishes with a black screen and the message of the video appears â€Å"Other people make mistakes. Slow down†. The advertisement isn’t designed to sell anything, it is socially important: its ethos aims to evoke people’s responsibility and capability of thinking about others while driving, because we all live in the world where there are other people around us and it is a part of ethics to include other people’s human factor in our decision making. The ethos sends the important moral message that it is crucial to follow your civil duty, that’s why the advertisement was made based on touching and strong drivers’ feelings of grief and regret. As far as the advertisement is sponsored by New Zealand Transport Agency it becomes clear that it aims to decrease the amount of car accidents on roads and the agency is also responsible for this. The target audience for this

Reactive Attachment Disorder and Attachment Therapy Essay Example for Free

Reactive Attachment Disorder and Attachment Therapy Essay Reactive Attachment Disorder and Attachment Therapy University of New York in Prague Reactive Attachment Disorder and Attachment Therapy Introduction There has been growing attention on attachment theory and its impacts on later behavioral outcomes. Several research have found an association between attachment insecurity and personality disorders due to inconsistent and unstable sense of self; and association between insecure attachment and physical illness due to susceptibility to stress. Although it has various implications on sense of integrated personality and psychological well-being, the only pathology that is officially related to attachment is Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) of infancy or early childhood which is counted as very rare disorder in Diagnostic Statistical Manuel. There has been a wide range of debates on RAD with regard to its difficulties in diagnosing, validity of its subtypes, its susceptibility of being confused with other disorders, its relation with attachment theory and its treatment methods. In my opinion, RAD has not given much attention and has not been studied much due to these complications. In this paper, my attempt is to discuss these issues about RAD and its treatment models by providing with some empirical findings. Reactive Attachment Disorder can historically be traced on the studies with institutionalized children who were deprived from secure attachment and who had multiple caregivers. In very young institutionalized children who experienced social deprivation, Tizard and Rees (1975) identified two types of disorders. The first one was socially indiscriminate/ disinhibited type, in which children displayed nonselective preferences of using adults as seeking comfort and tendency to go with the strangers who offered them comfort. In the second type, children were relatively socially withdrawn/ inhibited, who showed limited social responsiveness, little positive affect and failure to seek comfort when needed. Later, these behavioral patterns with the requirement of signs result from pathogenic care were described as reactive attachment disorder. Zeanah Gleason, 2010) Attachment Theory suggests that infants are evolutionarily primed to form close, enduring, dependent bond on a primary caregiver. The fulfillment of their physiological needs require close physical contact (Carlson, Sampson Sroufe, 2003). In Diagnostic Statistical Manuel, the only pathology that is officially related to attachment is Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) of infancy or early childhood. The diagnostic criteria for RAD include: disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness prior to age five, pathogenic care such as persistent disregard of the childs basic emotional and physical needs and repeated changes of primary caregiver that prevents development of stable attachment, and these disturbances are not better accounted for pervasive developmental disorders or developmental delay (DSM-IV-TR, 2007). Two types of RAD behaviors have been classified: Inhibited type refers to emotionally withdrawn children who show limited social responsiveness, ambivalent or contradictory responses, little positive affect and a failure to seek comfort when they feel distressed. These behavior patterns are believed to be related with experiences with caregivers who do not provide emotional support and comfort when needed. Secondly, disinhibited type refers to children who have diffuse attachment and who show accessive and inappropriate familiarity with strangers. These behaviors are resulting from experiences with caregivers who are not very responsive but can provide some affection. (Haugaard and Hazan, 2004) Some studies demonstrated that children with RAD might display inhibited behavioral patterns, disinhibited behavioral patterns and both inhibited and disinhibited behavioral patterns (Smyke, Dumitrescu ; Zeanah, 2002). However there is a disagreement in subclassification of RAD. Some other studies based on the follow-up studies of children placed in adoptive homes showed that inhibited types were nonexistent whereas disinhibited types were much higher (Chisholm, 1998). These findings have raised the question that inhibited and disinhibited types might have different clinical entities. Mary Margaret Gleason and her collegues (2011) examined inconsistent findings and validity of the two types of RAD. The construct validity of two types of RAD was examined by comparing the caregiving quality, a putative risk factor for each type of RAD, and attachment security. In existing literature, attachment security is found as inconsistently linked to indiscriminately social/disinhibited RAD and more consistently linked with emotionally withdrawn/inhibited RAD. They predicted that each type of RAD would show stability over time. The results supported the validity of these two types. Signs of inhibited RAD were distinct from the disinhibited type; and they were associated with poor caregiving quality (Gleason, Fox, Drury, Smyke, Egger, Nelson, Gregas ; Zeanah, 2011). There has been an implicit assumption that RAD is caused by attachment deficit; however, this assumption may have blocked the research. There are some difficulties in diagnosing RAD due to complications of assessing attachment. The assessment may be derived from the observations of relationship between child and caregiver. It also may focus on the behavioral outcomes of children (Lyons T. Hardy, 2007). Minnis et. al. (2006) proposed that RAD is construed in intersubjectivity. RAD has raised various questions since there is not a single explanation of the behaviors of children that are afflicted of the disorder. In the DSM-IV classification, diagnostic requirement of grossly pathogenic care does not explain the aspects of social, emotional and physical maltreatment. Children who experienced grossly pathogenic care may display aggressiveness, indiscriminate friendliness, social withdrawal and poor emotional regulation. However, these behaviors can also be observed in some other disorders such as Conduct disorder, ADHD and autism. Therefore, presuming attachment as a core etiology may be misleading. They offer, instead, intersubjectivity- the infants brain development is supported by the responses of parents or caregivers. Since this process is always active, an infant will always be affected by other persons actions and the other persons rejection will have a negative impact on the infant. Although there are some overlaps between intersubjectivity and attachment, intersubjectivity processes are active in all interaction including low affect. Children who have never experienced intersubjectivity will not have the capacity of removing early false relationship and they may be condemned to seek it throughout their life (Minnis,Marwick, Arthur McLaughlin, 2006). Through the active process of intersubjectivity, caregivers neglect in the early ages will have a negative effect on the infant. Similar to this claim, Corbin (2007) states that pathological caregiving characteristic of RAD does its harm through the ruptures and developmental difficulties in the early ages (Minnis et al. , 2006). Liggan and Kay (1999) found that early pre-symbolic memory is an enduring implicit memory that depends on â€Å"whose existence is inferred from observable influence on emotional behaviors related to early attachment experiences†. Implicit memory is an unconscious memory that has the potential to influence the storage of long-term memory. These findings have implication on RAD since early experiences would form prototypes, schemes that affect interpretation of subsequent experiences. Therefore the information stored is not available in conscious reflection and thought. This may explain the insufficient researches on the effectiveness of some treatment strategies with children with RAD. Nevertheless, some studies showed that attachment therapy and clinical intervention have led to significant improvement on children with RAD. Even though there are some different perspectives on etiology of RAD and presentation of the symptoms, it is largely influenced by early emotional and social deficiencies. Treatment of RAD focuses on enhancing current attachment relationship, creating new attachment relationships and reducing problematic symptoms. Barth et al. (2005) examined the rationale of the development of attachment-based therapies in the treatment of RAD. The findings supported that early anxious attachment is not a direct cause of psychopathology but it is an initiator of pathways associated with later pathology (Sroufe et al. , 1999). Some therapists point out that early frustration of being rejected and helplessness lead pessimistic view of the world and sociopaths such as serial killers may have attachment disorders (Thomas 1997). Although some studies found that most of the adopted children do not have insecure attachment (Singer et al. 1985; Juffer;Rosenboom, 1997), Barth et. al. argue that these studies are characteristically short-term and mostly based on children in non-adoptive families. RAD is considered as very uncommon disorder by American Psychiatric Association 2000,p. 129), however, it is thought that there may be one million children, half of all adopted children, diagnosed with RAD in USA. (Werner-Wilson; Davenport, 2003). Millward et al. (2006) examined 100 children in foster care in Scotland. They predicted that there would be higher symptom scores for RAD in children in care compared with general population controls and that high symptom scores for RAD would be associated with other psychiatric disorders. Parents and carers took RAD Scale. As they predicted, children living in care had higher rates of mental health problems including RAD. They were more likely to have anxiety, depression, conduct disorder and hyperactivity (Millward, Kennedy, Towlson ; Minnis, 2006). Attachment based therapies regard the child as a focus of clinical intervention. In this perspective, the purpose of the treatment of RAD is helping the children to release anger resulting from their early negative experiences and teaching the child that new parents can be trusted as caregivers. Wimmer et al. (2009) investigated the effectiveness of attachment therapy in treating adopted children diagnosed with RAD. Adopted parents often face with the lack of affection of their adopted children. They feel that they are unable to contact with the child to establish reciprocal emotional relationship. Attachment therapy aims to provide some improvement in their relationship with their child. Based on the presumption that adopted children may have insecure attachment due to early experiences of deprivation, attachment theory has been developed to improve childs trust in the adoptive parents. Moreover development in childs social and emotional functioning and teaching effective parenting techniques are promises of attachment therapy (Wimmer, Vonk ; Bordnick, 2009). In order to investigate the effectiveness of attachment therapy, they gathered data from 24 children who were adopted and who had been treated with attachment therapy for three years.

Status of Women and Marriage Change Essay Example for Free

Status of Women and Marriage Change Essay The Medieval approach to the subject of marriage was entirely distinct and unlike our own. It is difficult to understand their view on married life, as it appears to us, in the modern day to be much more of a contract for the consolidation of estates and monetary gain rather than the love of two people. However the view of women in general was very  unlike the outlook of our contemporary society and to understand their view of marriage we must first understand the outlook of women in the Middle Ages.   Women are first mentioned in The Bible in Genesis 2:21-3. It is described how woman is created from the rib of man and how the man said  This at last is bone of my bones  and flesh of my flesh;  she shall be called Woman,   because she was taken out of man1. The following passages in The Bible describe the fall of Eve and the temptation of Adam. From the very first literature, women are depicted with less moral standing than men and are seen as the downfall of all good, honest Christians. Apostles such as St Paul and St Augustine are also seen to have a grave role in the shaping of the view of women in the Middle Ages. However condemnation of females was not only confined to the Christian Church, as we know it today. Constantine, who established the progressive Christainisation of the empire, discovered small yet troubled heresies among which was one called Gnostics. They believed that the created world was inferior to the spiritual one and as women are the creators in our world they were therefore automatically lesser in the eyes of the lord. Many Gnostic sets wished to discard the reproducing purposes of women and also believed that marriage was sent from the Devil. They are quoted as declaring Marrying and reproducing are said to be instigated by Satan However they did not just believe in this without any cause. Gnostics thought that if women abandoned their duty to procreate they would be worthy to preach, baptise and prophesy alongside men. There were already many prior instances of women taking on such roles within The Bible. However, most surprisingly was the vision of the female Christ. This was maintained by Montanist liturgies that had great worship for Eve as her first sin brought about the miracle of incarnation. So it is easy to see that womens role within this society was a perplexed and confused issue. There were so many different views from many different sects of Christianity, however what I am going to concentrate on is the view of the laywomen in the Middle Ages by the Christian church.  All women were expected to be married, even Nuns were the brides of Christ. Although it was expected, marriage was not the ideal state for a woman. The perfect form was virginity. Those women who preserved their virginity were exalted among others as they had not given in to temptation and from the stories of Eve its in the female nature to be tempted. Puritans wrote  Per mulierem culpa successit,  Per virginem salus evenit  Sin came from women,  But salvation through a virgin2  However even virginity could not bring a woman to the higher state that a man holds within the Christian Church of the early Middle Ages. Cyprian, a third century writer made virginity the distinguishing and unique mark of Christianity, which in turn made virginity a public affair as opposed to a private virtue. Cyprians later contemporary; Ambrose conceived the idea that there were only two types of women in the world. Those who led normal married lives which were tarnished by sexual intercourse and those who stood out from the rest, exceptional women who remained virgins. St Augustine held up the celibate marriage of the Virgin Mary as an ideal for all. Unfortunately pureness would be impossible for the masses. Interestingly, it was only female virginity that held such high esteem. Origen a second century monk castrated himself out of dedication to sexual purity and was punished by the church and excluded from priesthood as he was no longer whole. Female virginity was held in high reverence throughout the Middle Ages however this did change somewhat towards the latter part of this era. With the emergence of characters such as Alysoun in Chaucers The Canterbury Tales there was born a women who could play men at their own game. She could quote the Holy Scriptures, making them state that her way of life was viable. She in effect could turn around any criticism of her manner by means reserved only for men of the cloth. There was also an ideal of mutual freedom in marriage, which was conceived, in the late Middle Ages that would not have been imagined any earlier. Women were seen to take control of the household and hold an equal share of the responsibility within the home. Although their aging husbands may have to show them how to run their household, it was down to the lady to see that everything gets done. The man would provide his young bride with a conduct book explaining what she should do if he were to die suddenly, whether he thought it appropriate for her to re-marry. In addition to house rules and his preferences in the way his household was run.

Cross Cultural Pragmatic Perspective For Classroom Teaching

Cross Cultural Pragmatic Perspective For Classroom Teaching Introduction Cross-culture pragmatics, as a new subject of language study, is based on the developments of pragmatics theories. It hybrids Anthropology, Translation, Communication, Sociology and Pragmatics together and gets wide influence on future language study. Scholars from different countries are always focusing on the problems which language learners always made in their second language using to compare with their native language comprehension. Cross-culture pragmatics is the study of interrelationship communication between people who are from different culture backgrounds. So behind the language usage differences is the huge diversity of cultures which influence the actions and thinking of people. Core Definitions Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterance in particular discourse and situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than the way it is structured. Cross-culture pragmatics developed since 1950s in America when Chomsky ¼Ã‹â€ 1957 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ° developed his grammar-based approach to language acquisition. Lado (1957) had published his book Linguistics Across Culture which can be considered as a milestone to cross-culture pragmatics. It shows the differences between this new subject and comparative linguistics. In his view, comparative linguistics should focus on the differences among languages especially give a systematic comparison of the target language, native language and their culture to get the relation from meaning and distribution. Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture both productively and when attempting to speak the language and to act in the culture and receptively when attempting to grasp and understand the language and culture as practiced by natives. From then on, others like Charles Mor ris considered that the study of language should be parceled into syntax, semantics and pragmatics while certain researchers at least in the past have seen pragmatics as a fuzzy area, possibly not deserving of being categorized as a separate and main field. (Thomason,1973 ¼Ã… ¡162). Thomason (1973) thinks that the status of pragmatics is much less clear, if such a discipline exists at all, it is very under-developed . The definition of culture may be ambiguous with some considering it largely related to ethnicity while sociologists and others (Dash, P.2003) consistent to Stern (1992) may see it as inclusive of social groups, some of which may be independent of ethnic consideration ( Dash, P., 2004). Failure is an irreplaceable notion in cross-culture pragmatics from which linguists could get valuable evidences to investigate the language communication and analyze the reason of pragmatic failure. That which is related to cross-cultural failure is referred to as pragmalinguistic failure whereas that which has a non-cultural basis due to the social relationships and positions between individuals is referred to as sociolinguistic failure (Thomas, 1983 ¼Ã… ¡99). Leech (1983) analyzed the different importance of politeness applying into cultures and the informative intent or the sentence meaning, and the other the communicative intent or speaker meaning. The ability to comprehend and produce a communicative act is referred to as pragmatic competence which often includes ones knowledge about the social distance, social status between the speakers involved, the cultural knowledge such as politeness, and the linguistic knowledge explicit and implicit (Kasper, 1997). Foreign language learners are easily to put their own culture to the target language learning which constantly causes pragmatic failures and thus affects the effectiveness of trans-cultural communication. Thin (1984) writes in his book that, literal meaning has little, if any relevance to the use of spoken language in social life. Just (2001) further investigates, much of what we state about others, we have not derived from their statements but from their behaviour. From their point, interpreting pragmatic failure could not ignoring the cultural basis and social belief. Green (1996) especially demonstrated that the central notion is that pragmatics must include belief, intentions (or goal) plan and act. Differences in the way of speaking with different languages are profound and systematic, andà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦reflect, and can be explained, in terms ofà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ differences in cultural traditions, cultural values, and cultural priorities( Wierzbicka 2003:21). It will lose its meaning when language learners use their language without their belief and innate cultural comprehension. The verbal expressions of the language will also fade and lose their vivacity. Cross-pragmatics communication failure It has be beard in mind for all the teachers of pragmatics in their classroom teaching that it is most important cross-cultural risk of pragmatic pitfalls for a certain group of learners who are really in it. For this concern, language teachers especially L2 teacher should be careful to explain the difference of pragmatic usage of communication to avoid cross-cultural misunderstandings. For example, Chinese put modesty as their primary politeness , for this reason , they would criticize themselves to others especially when they are praised by others. I remember an interesting conversation happened between a Chinese girl and an Aussie girl. A: I love your dress, it is amazing! C: No, no, it is only an ordinary dress. Then the conversation fell into ice. It is normal for westerner especially English speaker to say Thank you when their dress are appreciated by others. But in this case, the Chinese girl used her chi-English thinking and directly translated her native language thinking into English to say no. The Aussie girl may think her aesthetic taste being laughed. It is ironic that it is the culture difference causes the misunderstanding. Another example happened in students from Asian countries especially Japan, Korea and China. Teachers from western culture background may find that it is difficult to let those students to call their given name directly without using the title Mr, MS or Professor. These Asian countries are greatly influenced by Confucius and Mencius. Teachers and elders are respected and their authority must not be challenged. In daily conversation, this hierarchical difference would be more obvious, students or the young must use title or honorific pronouns to call the teachers or the elders. Or else they would be criticized by the public. Although they will get used to the western social manners, they still bear the cultural thinking. The idea of number is so universal in the sense that it is readily accessible to all human beings and it is expressed in the lexical structure of all languages. However, not all languages have a grammatical category of number. As we know, English recognizes a distinction between one and more that one ( singular and plural). This distinction has to be expressed morphologically, by assign a suffix to a noun or by changing its form in some other way to indicate whether it refers to one or more than one: boy/boys, box/boxes, man/men, and person/people. The form of a noun in Chinese does not normally indicate whether it is singular or plural. A: May is leaving Nanjing for Beijing tomorrow. B: Dont forget to take the two luggages with you. Of course, it is typically a chi-English conversation. In this communication, pragmatic failure has come out. Luggage is a collection noun and also an uncountable one. The plural form of the word luggage should be expressed as two pieces of luggage. So B should say: Dont forget to take the two pieces of luggage with you. In social cultural concerning, dead is a forbidden word in Chinese culture, Chinese people always use pass away or other word to replace the word DEAD. So in Arabic numbers , Chinese always avoid and unlike the figure 4. Because it shares the same pronunciation with the word dead in Chinese. It is just the same as westerners unlike number 13 and thinks it unlucky. Although both of them are superstitious, they are the part of the culture. As a ordinary language learners , he has to respect it and not to judge. Furthermore, privacy is not often be discussed in public in western countries, many English speakers may feel weird and uncomfortable when people ask them about it. Chinese people always talk about family, marriage and job. But no offense, they just treat them as normal topic to arise the conversation. However, if the English speaker refused harshly, the conversation will be placed on iceberg. Both of the speakers will feel awkward. In hip-pop and rap culture, as a popular music culture. The lyrics always include some abbreviation and jargons having hidden meaning which people hard to understand. Even the native English speaker cannot comprehend. Because it represents the typically Negro street culture in United States. This also can approves that within a big cultural circle, there always exists small cultural. For this sake , we could know cross-cultural could not only exists between countries but different ethnic groups or other groups. Another examples is the Japanese word Sumimasen Versus I am sorry. English speakers might think that Japanese apologize more frequently than they really do because Sumimasen is always be heard in daily life. Sumimasen can be translates as I am sorry and be uses for apology; however, it can also be used in other purposes. There seven functions of it (Ide, 1998:510). It can be used to convey sincere apologies, sumimasen was also used to express thanks, to convey a mixture of thanks and apologies, as a preliminary a request, as an attention-getter , as actual-taking device, and more ritualistically as advice to confirm what someone has sais or simply to acknowledge it. It carries pragmatic and ritualistic functions that extend beyond conveying the semantic meaning of regret or gratitude in actual discourse. So when English speakers hear Sumimasen as frequently as they say I am sorry they think the meaning of these two words are equivalent. Though it is unavoidable to make pragmatic failure during cross-cultural communication, we should consider how to improve the ability of cross-cultural communication since the target students are second language learners. We need to offer a few qualifications related to the issue of how to become a more competent communicator. First, the major cultural barriers to the cross-cultural communications, stereotyping and prejudice, misusing of power, culture shocks, and ethnocentrism, etc. Secondly, because communication is an activity that has a consequence, we must continually ask ourselves id we are behaving in a way that harms our communication partners. For example, do not shake your left hand with people come from India, because left hand symbolize dirt and bad luck. The most important way of how to improve the ability of the cross-cultural communication is following some basic advice such as knowing yourselves, considering the physical and human setting, seeking a shares code, devel oping empathy, encouraging feedback and learning about cultural adaptation, etc. All these can help improve cross-cultural communication. It has become necessary to us to improve the ability of cross-cultural communication. In my opinion, it is also a hard job for teacher themselves to improve their ability of cross-cultural communication. In classroom teaching, teachers hope the students from different cultural backgrounds to show their difference language usage or reactions towards the same things in front of the whole class. But students who notice the intention sometimes are not willing to take the chalks which may make them feel embarrassed like the animals in the zoo. As Thomas (1983) writes, ..speaking good English does not necessarily mean conforming to the norms of the culturally hegemoic strata. The teachers might well know different culture through their teaching, the key point is they shouldnt bear the discriminations to certain culture. If the teacher cannot keep his neutrality, students from certain cultural background may feel hurt and inferior. Mangubhai (1997) states, Nonetheless, it is possible to discern certain patterns of behavior, or primary tendencies within a cultural or sub-cultural group that permit one to address learners as a group. Grouping the students and respecting their own culture wou ld be the fundamental rule for all language teachers. Classroom Implications There are some implications for cross-cultural language teachers in their classroom teaching to eliminate the pragmatic failure and cultural misunderstanding. Foreign language teaching should be entered at all levels of linguistic knowledge words, sentences, discourse penetration pragmatic knowledge to enhance the ability to use language learners so that students understand the language reflected in the pragmatic rules, values and social ideas. Through the two cultures, two languages contrast, explore, and point out their differences in order to avoid linguistic pragmatic failure. Foreign or second language teachers when they are in the teaching process should pay special attention to the custom of a particular form of language-oriented; English speech act realization and understanding of differences in speech act. In vocabulary teaching, the students are supposed not only to understand the terms of intention, but also pay attention to their cultural meaning and proper use, in particular the taboo words. In oral practice and translation practice, different usage of words and expressions should be emphasized through certain discourse and contexts. Provide a lot of cross-cultural communication context to its recommend sources and materials relevant to the subject of the foreign cultures of extra-curricular books to enhance the learners understanding of foreign cultures and improve their practical application ability. To encourage the students to investigate the culture barrier themselves and let them to talk more with the native speaker of the target language will fasten the process of culture immersion. In communication, language is the basic unit of discourse. Thus, the ability to foster communicative discourse on the need to develop capacity. The so-called discourse capability refers to the students master the discourse on the basis of knowledge of the mechanisms of convergence can be quickly and accurately grasp the basic content of discourse and the central idea, in-depth understanding of the communicative value of text, students with strong reading ability and listening comprehension. Can be combined with the ability to read and write the language heard of synchronized and coordinated manner. The challenge for language teachers is to present information about culture in such a way that learners come to recognize, through nonjudgmental comparison, both the existence of their own system and that of the other language/culture. Language teachers must not only act as a good teaching instructors, administrators, evaluators, but also to act as lifelong learners and teaching the role of researchers. Pragmatic abilities as related to pragmatics, cross-cultural communication studies, second language acquisition research, foreign language teaching and other fields of inter-disciplinary issues, so the teacher must establish a life-long learning concept, lay a solid basic skills, and focus on their own knowledge structure updates. Language teachers in cross-cultural teaching background should expand the breadth and depth of their knowledge, and continuously develop their pragmatic competence in order to ensure the professional competence of adaptability, do a good job nurturing stude nts who pragmatic competence. Feedback plays a key role in learners progress in culture competence. A teacher can give feedback in the role of an L2 instructor who points out learners mistakes, presents correct models, or direct learners to self-correct. Alternatively, a teacher can provide feedback as one interlocutor in the interaction, who responds to the other interlocutors remarks and behaviors with natural conversational prompt for repetition, clarification, or self-correction (Noda, 1998). Performing a culture in each case should aim to create a memory focused on pleasing the subjects of the remembering so they will want to continue the conversing (Walker, 2000). The ability to discern others response and adjust ones behaviors accordingly is an important skill that contributes to learners overall competence in C2 communication. Therefore, when learners performance is culturally incorrect, responding as an interlocutor in the interaction is one option in giving feedback. Since this kind of feedback is implicit and time-consuming, when it causes confusion or is not applicable in classroom instruction, explicitly correcting learners can always be an alternative option. Kramsch (1991: 229) refers to it as cultural competence, and asserts that it can best be developed in a structured learning environment, here conscious parallels can be drawn, where language can be explicitly linked to its meaning in a particular sociocultural and historical context, where disparate linguistic or cultural phenomena can be brought together and attached to more abstract principles of both base (C1) and target (C2) language and culture. Teachers should continually deepen their understanding of both C1 and C2 by reading studies from a variety of sources that help identify and analyze cultural patterns in the series of isolated cultural facts which they experience or teach about. Conclusion As supported by the definitions by Mangubhai and Son (2003) and Hatch (1992) in respect to an utterance, its underlying meaning and intention derived from specific context represents pragmatics(Dash, 2004). Both Morris (in Thomason, 1973) and Green (1989) separate out pragmatics to semantics and it is this separation, which needs to be imparted in defining to teachers and students how to generate a real improvement in pragmatic competence. Well-organized role play and multi-media displaying authentic and successful pragmatics usage across different cultural against the examples of more frequent cross-cultural pragmatic failure may be a start to guide the students to successful pragmatic strategies . Culture changes through times, the materials language teachers use may be out of date, the teacher could ask the students to correct mistakes and discuss it through groups to clear the misunderstanding. In an attempt to explore the roles of cultural values and cultural themes curriculum, learners learn doing things in a culturally appropriate manner, which automatically results in a procedural knowledge of C2 cultural themes. L2 learners also develop descriptive knowledge on cultural themes and cultural values through explicitly learning information on the two. Culture has a distinct personality; the use of language must be followed. Culture rules, in other words, culture determines thinking, decision. In this sense, the difference in language use can not be avoided. It takes time to implant the pragmatic ability only in classroom teaching. It will be a long journey for both students and teachers to experience the cultural difference in their life and process of learning. However, study the culture of target language including manners, customs and cultural formation of the correct concept will have positive effect on pragmatic competence. (3214 words)